Adult Education in the 1950s: Influences of Social Events and Trends

Adult Education in the 1950s: Influences of Social Events and Trends

Mary A. Henehan

Ball State University

EDAC 631 Adult and Community Education

January 27, 2014

Adult Education in the 1950s: Influences of Social Events and Trends

Introduction

Significant developments in adult education during the 1950s emerged worldwide.  Paulo Freire’s work in Brazil to increase literacy with the Youth and Adult Literacy Movement (Gadotti, 2011), the attempt (and ultimate failure) to establish literacy programs for adults in Nigeria (Omolewa, 2008), and the priority of adult education in China after the long march, (Boshier, R., & Yan, H., 2010) and the global pursuit of peace for humanity through the literacy work of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (Knoll, 2007) are notable examples cultural revolutions influencing changes adult education in the 1950s. This paper will focus on adult education in the United States during the post-World War II era. It was a time of prosperity. This era is notable for the nascent civil rights era, abundant technological advances, growing literacy rates and increased learner centered educational opportunities for adults.

Key social, political, and cultural events in occurring in the United States in the 1950s include:

Years               Events

1950-1953    Korean War

1950s            Cold War, Communism and Red Scare

1951              Transcontinental television became the prominent form of media; eye witness news

                      reports proliferated (Bradley, 1998).

                      International Astronautical Federation founded and the race to be the first in space

                      ensued (IAF, 2014).

1954              Racial segregation in schools was ruled unconstitutional.

1955                Rosa Parks was arrested.

                        Civil rights education introduced a national movement.

1956                Federal Interstate Highway system expanded interstate travel. (Bradley, 1998)

Autherine J. Lucy, first black to successfully enroll in the

University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa (Bradley,1998).

1957                Sputnik, the first satellite, was launched into space by the Russians.

Birth rates in the United States peaked at 4.3 million births. (Snyder,1993).

1958                Congress passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) to provide grants

and loans to students.

First satellite launched into space by United States (Bradley,1998).

1959                Literacy rate increased to 97.8 by end of decade (Snyder, 1993).

50% of teens completed high school (Snyder, 1993).

Alaska and Hawaii earned statehood.

Highlights

The development of adult education in the 1950s was shaped by practitioners, educators and psychologists. Adult education was impacted by events in the scientific community resulting in an emphasis on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) subjects. Federal funding for students and institutions increased.  The Civil Rights movement resulted in diverse populations participating in education as institutions opened their doors to all Americans.  

Influential factors

            In 1955, Grattan wrote one of the first narrative histories of adult education, In Quest of Knowledge. His work was funded by the Ford Foundation. For a number of years, Grattan’s work served as a primer for the field of adult education from a liberal prospective.  Malcolm Knowles led the Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. for most of the 1950s.  His experience in this role enabled him to later write an account of adult education for the perspective of a practitioner versus that of a historian (Merriam, S.B. & Brockett, R.G., 1997, p.61).  The work of Malcolm Knowles has had significant impact on the field of adult education and is widely cited in the literature.

John Dewey, B.F. Skinner and Abraham Maslow are among a number of psychologists who influenced educational trends in the 1950s. Dewey brought practical applications or a pragmatic approach resulting in educational goals and programs (Elias & Merriam, 1994, p.49). Skinner’s work in behaviorism introduced theories on how people learn and how to teach which developed the science of teaching and education. (Merriam, S.B. & Brockett, R.G., 1997, p.38, 39). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs introduced ways to motivate adult learners once basic needs were met. The humanistic approach to learning and education gave rise to individualized approaches to learning (Merriam, S.B. & Brockett, R.G., 1997, p.40).

STEM subjects were stressed as the United States launched a concerted effort to beat the Russians into space.  Sputnik had a profound impact on changes to the American educational system in the years following 1957. An emphasis was placed on academics and rigor of curriculum. Teachers struggled with the content and new teaching methodologies. This resulted in significant restructuring of teacher education programs.

Prior to Sputnik, there was a trend to return to basics and move away from John Dewey’s ideas and progressive approach to education. Teaching strategies evolved from memorization of terms and facts to understanding processes, applying science and math principles and development of scientific inquiry, critical thinking, and problem solving (Bybee, 1998; Herr, 2013).  Gessner (1956, p. 160) wrote that Lindeman redefined the role of a teacher: “He is no longer the oracle who speaks from the platform of authority, but rather the guide the pointer-out, who also participates in learning.”  Educational groups such as Lawrence Hall of Science and the Educational Development Center emerged to retrain teachers for their new roles and provide supplemental learning materials (Bybee, 1998; Herr, 2013). Lawrence Hall of Science subsequently opened a hands-on museum/activity center where parents and children learn principles of science together.

Federal funding for STEM, foreign languages, vocational and higher education increased in 1958 after Congress passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA).  Students studying these subjects received grants and loans which allowed them an unprecedented opportunity to pursue a post-secondary education.   NDEA also provided unprecedented funding to institutions for teacher training (Federal Education Policy History, 2011). Although passed in 1944, the GI bill provided funds to veterans returning from the Korean War (1950-1953) to pursue education.

Highlander Center for Research and Education founded by Myles Horton was instrumental in promoting education for social change through residential workshops. Initially, participants learned to identify significant issues in their communities. Participants, by sharing their experiences and knowledge helped one another determine possible courses of action. People became empowered to act in their communities. Beauticians and labor leaders, Sunday school teachers and mothers on welfare took steps for justice in their communities.  Later, the workshops supported education leading to the civil rights movement. Emerging civil right leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks participated in Highlander workshops.  (Horton, 1990, Merriam, S.B. & Brockett, R.G.,1997, p. 72).

By far, one of the most impactful events of the Civil Rights era on education is the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown V. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas indicating that racial segregation in public school was unconstitutional. A few years later, Autherine Lucy would become the first black to successfully enroll in the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa after filing a lawsuit against the university for discriminatory admissions practices (Bradley, 1998). The transitions in public institutions did not come easily or quickly; but they improved access to quality education for future generations.

With the arrival of transcontinental television in 1951, informal education gained a foothold in American culture in the form of evening news, documentaries and eye-witness accounts that provided first-hand knowledge of events.  Formal electronic distance education was born when the University of Wisconsin paired traditional correspondence education with television. In 1958, over 400 courses were offered to 12,000 students.  The University partnered with governmental agencies to provide training to foreign service officers and the army (History of Distance Education).  Television became a tool to provide education to previously underserved populations.

            The system of interstate highways impacted American culture in a number of ways.  People who lived in urban areas moved to rural areas, but maintained jobs in the city.  As the demand for automobiles increased, employment rates increased and prosperity ensued.  There was growing need for engineers, architects, and auto mechanics (History of the interstate highway system). The rise in adult education in the 1950s and increased enrollments in colleges and trade schools could be attributed, in part, to the development of interstate highways.

Implications

The 1950s provided the field of adult education with work that is considered classic; its rich history shapes the contemporary work being carried out in 2014. Knowles, Horton, Skinner are among the celebrated leaders of the period. Teaching became a science. Science and technology impacted methodologies of teaching and learning and access to education.

The courageous work of civil rights leaders of this decade opened doors not only into educational institutions, but into other facets of daily life that are taken for granted. In 2014, all American families are able to enter the front doors of restaurants to share meals together. No longer are drinking fountains and public restrooms restricted to one race. 

The best lesson to be learned from 1950s is summed up by an idea expressed in the introduction to The Long Haul. We, as adult educators, need to keep one eye on where we are and one eye where we can be.  We always need to be reaching for the best ways to educate and to continually grow our practice and profession with a critical consciousness (Horton, 1990).

Table 1 Summary of the History of Adult/Community Education Areas         Summary

Areas	Summary
Social background	Civil Rights movement and Supreme Court decisions. Race to be the first in space. High literacy rates and high school completion. Television brought the world into homes. Mobility via highway systems.
Highlights	STEM education. Increased funding for education. Development of the field of adult education.
Influential factors	Highlander Workshops and civil rights movement. Study of adult education and the first history of the field. Development of the science of teaching. Changes in the ways science is taught. Reshaping of teacher education. Knowles, Dewey, Skinner, Maslow were key players. Electronic distance education courses via television. Integration of schools.
Implications	Classic work became foundation for the field of adult education. Civil Right movement resulted in equitable society. Look back on history, review current status and move forward to the future.

References

Boshier, R., & Yan, H. (2010). More important than guns: Chinese adult education after the long march. Adult Education Quarterly, 60(3), 284-302.

Bradley, B. (1998). 1950-1959. American Cultural History. Lone Star College-Kingwood Library, Kingwood, TX. Retrieved January 18, 2014 from http://wwwappskc.lonestar.edu/popculture/decade50.html  

Bybee, R. (1998). American Physical Society. Education Forum. Retrieved January 18, 2014 from http://www.aps.org/units/fed/newsletters/apr98/sput.html

Elias, J.L. & Merriam, S.B. (1994). Philosophical foundations of adult education. (2^nd ed.) Malabar. Florida: Krieger.

Federal Education Policy History. National Defense Education Act of 1958. Federal Education Policy History. Retrieved January 18, 2014, from http://federaleducationpolicy.wordpress.com/2011/06/03/national-defense-education-act-of-1958-2/

Gadotti. M. (2011). Adult education as a human right: The Latin American context and the ecopedagogic perspective. International Review of Education, Volume 57, Issue 1-2, pp 9-25 57:9–25 DOI 10.1007/s11159-011-9205-0

Gessner, R. (Ed.). (1956). The democratic man: Selected writings of Edward C. Lindeman. Boston: Beacon Press.

Herr, E. L. (2013). Trends in the history of vocational guidance. Career Development Quarterly, 61(3), 277-282. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2013.00056.x

History of distance education.  (n.d). Retrieved January 24, 2014 from http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Spring01/deClair/history.html

History of the interstate highway system. (n.d.). Retrieved January 26, 2014 from http://highway.umwblogs.org/  

Horton, M. (1990). The long haul: An autobiography. Doubleday: New York, New York.

International Astronautical Foundation. (2014). History. Retrieved  January 18, 2014 from http://www.iafastro.org/index.php/about/history

Knoll, J.H. (2007). The history of the UNESCO international conferences on adult education – from Helsingör (1949) to Hamburg (1997): International Education Policy through people and programmes. Convergence, 40(3-4),.21-41.

Merriam, S.B. & Brockett, R.G. (1997). The profession and practice of adult education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Omolewa, M. (2008). Programmed for failure? The colonial factor in the mass literacy campaign in Nigeria, 1946-1956. Paedagogica Historica, 44(1/2), 107-121. doi:10.1080/00309230701865462

Snyder, T. (1993). Retrieved January 18, 2014 from: http://nces.ed.gov/NAAL/lit_history.asp