Hill-History of Adult Ed-The 1970's

Running Head: HISTORY OF ADULT EDUCATION                                                       1

History of Adult Education: The 1970’s

Robert Hill

Ball State University

History of Adult/Community Education: The 1970s

Introduction

            If one were to look at the beginning of the decade of the 1970’s, they would see a continuum of the 1960’s.  However, little by little the decade began to have a distinct break from the 1960’s.  Protest movements continued as the nation, and world, continued to adapt to changing societal activities (Hall, 2008, p. 656).  From a global standpoint, the Vietnam War dragged on, Civil Rights activists pushed forward, education was in flux, working conditions were examined and debated, and the role of government was contemplated (ABH, 2014, p.3).

            Unknown to the masses, trends in technology that would change society were finding root.  The computer was still in its infancy and had not yet become part of daily life.  An awareness of pollution and unfulfilled promises in equity from a cultural viewpoint were being challenged (ABH, 2014, p.6).  Watergate made the American people question how much they could trust their leaders (ABH, 2014, p. 4).  And, an economic recession in the United States galvanized the public to debate how to create jobs.  Lurking below the surface were relationships, one that were often volatile, between the U.S.S.R and the United States. 

            In education, desegregation was advanced through busing in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education while those in opposition made it difficult for implementation (Hall, 2008, p. 658).  Most schools were highly segregated and tumultuous battles ensued. 

            The landscape of the private sector and workers rights was being redefined (Roos & Reskin, 1992, p. 69).  Female workers were demanding equity in the workforce and worker unions fought on behalf of their constituents (Roos & Reskin, 1992, p. 71).  Struggles continued in the arena of reproductive rights and legislation was confrontational while both sides adamantly argued the verdict of Rowe v. Wade (ABH, 2014, p. 3).

            From a perspective of leisure and entertainment, society saw changes in technology and a bustling theme parked era began its inception.  Disney World opened, Star Wars took hold of the imagination, and the Rubric’s Cubes puzzled people for a solution to the game.

            The decade saw peace opportunities in the Middle East, communication with China, Communist expansion in the Far East after the United States pulled troops in Vietnam, a president scorned, a new Progressive president in Jimmy Carter and the beginning of globalization (ABH, 2014, p. 6).  There were gas shortages, talks with OPEC, energy crises that included nuclear problems at Three Mile Island and space exploration (ABH, 2014, p. 6).

            The Iran hostage crises grasped America’s heart and interest.  The era had seen the Vietnam War viewed on television, Nixon traveling to China, Stagflation, a bi-centennial birthday for the country and closed the decade as Carter lost his re-election bid to Ronald Reagan.  Much like the change from the 1960’s to the 1970’s, the change from the 1970’s to the 1980’s did not have a clear and concise split but a gradual change. 

            One cannot look at the social background of the era without looking at the events that shaped society.  There are relationships between events and society.  If one were to look at the economy of the 1970’s, there would be a relationship between cultures, races, gender, standard of living, health, opportunity and a multitude of other factors.  These relationships and reactions are embedded in 

society.  One need only look at the educational events of the 1970’s to see a link to societal movements.  Without desegregation, we would not be able to look at education the same.  And, without the 1970’s, we would not be able to comprehend the pathway that events lead us to.        

Highlights

               If there is a relationship between events and society, then there must be a relationship between society and adult education.  As a reaction to society, adult education in the 1970’s was defined by several legislative acts; The 1970 Amendment to the Adult Education Act, and The Lifelong Learning Amendment (1976) (Rose, 1991, p. 19).  The 1970 Amendment to the Adult Education Act was enacted to “provide skills necessary to gain the training needed to become more employable, productive, and responsible citizens” (Rose, 1991, p.19).  Specifically, in 1972, the Act helped Native Americans, develop relationships with limited English skilled persons, and freed up money for community organizing (Rose, 1991, p.19).  The Lifelong Learning Amendment “assisted federal and state agencies in their planning activities concerning lifelong learning as well as to review and research lifelong learning in terms of its participants, providers, means of financing unmet needs, and planning and coordination (Jonsen, 1978, p. 4).

            The definition of adult education from United Nations Educational, Scientific, and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was defined in 1976.  In abbreviated form to read:

           

            “The entire body of organized educational processes, whatever the content, level    and method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial          education in schools, colleges, and universities as well as in apprenticeship,            whereby persons regarded as adult by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or professional         qualifications or turn them in a new direction and bring about changes in their     attitudes or behavior in the twofold perspective of full personal development and    participation in balanced and independent social, economic, and cultural         development; adult education, however, must not be considered as an entity in        itself, it is a sub-division, and an integral part of a global scheme for lifelong            education and learning” (Rubenson, 2010, p. 4). 

This concept makes clear three critical ideas:

                        1. “It is lifelong and therefore concerns everything from cradle to grave;

                        2.   It is life-wide recognizing that learning occurs in many different                                           settings;

                        3.   It focuses on learning rather than limit itself to education”. (Rubenson,                    2010, p. 4)

            It would appear that although there was a strong commitment to traditional adult education and vocational programs in the 1970’s that there was a shift in defining what adult education was.  The Carl Perkins Acts of the 1970s helped out in vocational training for persons that needed specific skills in trade related fields but with the changing definition set forth by UNESCO, a trend was moving toward a broader scope. The “development of compensatory educational opportunities involved second-chance and second-way adult education with an emphasis upon outreach work to the nonparticipants in adult education, which was associated with development of nonformal and informal community based forms of adult learning (Hake, 2010, p. 17).

            Other trends that affected adult education were that the country was in a “conversion from a primarily manufacturing based economy to one that is information based” (Burns, 2011, p. 1).  Since it has been established that adult education reacts to society, there was likely a move to educate in a manner that addressed the changing economy. 

Influential Factors  

            The main adult/community leaders of the 1970’s included Knowles (Smith, 2002, p. 16) for his works in community learning and development as well as lifelong learning concepts.  Allen Tough was a recognizable leader in adult education with a focus on self guided learning (IACE, 2006, p. 1).  Cyrile Houle was also a leading adult educator in self-directed learning and author of the Inquiring Mind (Brockett & Donaghy, 2005, p. 1).  McClusky was recognized in the 1970’s for his roles in adult education leadership (IACE, 2006, p. 1).  Paulo Freier, and his Pedagogy of the Oppressed certainly qualifies him as a leader in adult education and his belief in education for liberation (Freier, 1970, p. 43). 

            Ironically, the work of one generation is not immediately known until the test of time has stood up.  These contributors have achieved a status of leaders in their fields and many of their ideas and concepts have become common practice in society and adult education.

            There are many lessons we can learn from the 1970’s and much we can be grateful for that came out of the era.  Conversely, there is still work.  When one looks at the opportunities for adults in the 1970’s and compares it to what is available today, there is a clear distinction.  In the 1970’s computers and distance learning were concepts not yet known.  Today, provided no economic barriers are in place, many can advance their education from home. 

Implications

            The 1970’s were a time where the economy suffered under inflation and manufacturing began to decline.  In reaction, adult education changed from a more vocational standpoint.  Information based economies were on the rise while manufacturing began its slip.  Ironically, monies from the Carl Perkins Act still fed into a system that was on the downslide and adult education has not been able to replace manufacturing since that era.  Only policy can change that tide.  Adult education, however, could have served in another capacity.  As many of the leaders of adult education were raising awareness on how to educate and train communities, they themselves did not see the changing economy.  We can learn to be more cognizant of where industry is moving and adapt at a faster pace in adult education.  That is certainly something that adult educators must think of as they try their best to follow where the job market is heading.

            We can also learn the lessons of those that struggled through this time period.  We know from history that we were a changing society in the 1970’s.  Those that tried to hold onto old ideals met and clashed with those that saw a different possibility in society and adult education.  When we look back at this era, it seems as though there was ultimately a compromise between political views, directions, and policies.

            Learning from battles fought in the 1960’s, those in the 1970’s continued to push for equality.  Today, we can learn how hard it was for these people to stand up to a system that was not always equitable.  Yet, they did stand up- even when it was hard.

            We can also learn that education is a dynamic process; always changing, always adapting.  Most of the readings on the subject define a relationship between society and adult education as a reactionary measure.  We can learn that it might be of interest to see adult education more on the cusp of change as opposed to the later.  In economics, theories abound about supply and demand relationships.  Demand often drives the supply.  But when there is no supply, or not enough supply, demand cannot fulfill it obligation.  In adult education we are often seeing a problem with not enough supply in time.  We can learn from the 1970’s that we must change in accordance to demand at a more vigorous pace.  If we look at society today in the United States, we have an economy that is in many regards the opposite of the 1970’s.  Today there is a great need for skilled worker adult education.  In the 1970’s we had an abundance of skilled workers and poor job opportunities yet we still were training as if there were jobs in those fields.  Somewhere between the 1970’s and today we moved away from those training opportunities for adults when skilled jobs are becoming needed again.  The reaction time is too slow.  We learned that from the 1970’s and yet we still are not in a position to mobilize and get adults the proper training in these fields.  We could learn a lot from history, but we are not at that point.

            From a cultural standpoint, the 1970’s offered us a glimpse of what can happen when communities organize, educate, and dictate policy.  If it were not for grass roots movements in the era, we would not have the understanding of how to organize for local needs. 

            Looking back at the 1970’s shows a period of transition, change, hope and despair.  Even though progress was slow, it nonetheless was progress.  We are now in a better place as a society based on what happened in the 1970’s.  Much of that can be attributed to the role that adult education held in the transformation of the decade.

Table 1. Summary of History of Adult/Community Education Areas

Areas:	Summary
Social Background
Highlights
Influential Factors
Implications

References

America’s Best History (ABH), U.S. Timeline-1970’s  (2014). The 1970’s-The Nation in            Flux.1-6. Retrieved from http://americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline1970.html 

Brockett, R. & Donaghy, R. (2005) Beyond the Inquiring Mind: Cyril Houle’s      Connection to Self-Directed Learning. The University of Tennessee, Knoxville,        USA. 1. Retreived from          http://www.adulterc.org/applications/ClassifiedListingsManager/inc_classifiedlist 

Burns, E. (2011). The Adult Learner: A Change Agent in Post-Secondary Education. The College of St. Scholastica. 1. Retreived from             http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/summer142/burns_142.html 

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum International Publishing            Group. 43. Retreived from     http://www.google.com/search?q=Freiere+oppressed&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-      

Hake, B. (2010). Rewriting the History of Adult Education: The Search for Narrative        Structures. University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands. 17. Retreived from

            https://blackboard.bsu.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_group_id=_2_1&

Hall, S. (2008). Protest Movements in the 1970’s: The Long 1960’s. Journal of     Contemporary History  43(4), 658 DOI: 10.11770022009408095421

International Adult and Continuing Education (IACE) Hall of Fame website.  Class of       2006, Allen Tough. 1. Retrieved from              http://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/2006/tough.html   

International Adult and Continuing Education (IACE) Hall of Fame website.  Class of       2002, Howard Y. McClusky. 1. Retrieved from               http://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/2002/mccluskey.html         

Jonson, R. (1978). Lifelong Learning: State Policies. The School Review. 86(3), 4.   Retreived from            http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1084677?uid=3739568&uid=2129&uid=2

Roos, A. & Reskin, B. (1992). Occupational Desegegation in the 1970’s: Integration and   Economic Equity? Sociological Perspectives. 35(1) 69

Rose, A. (1991). Ends or Means: An Overview of the History of the Adult Education Act.           Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University.            19. Retreived from      http://www.google.com/search?q=AMy+Rose+ends+or+means&ie=utf-    8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-        a&surl=1&safe=active 

Rubenson, K. (2010). The Field of Adult Education: An Overview. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada. Adult Learning and Education. 5. Retreived           from    https://blackboard.bsu.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_group_id=_2_1&Smith, M.K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, Informal Adult Education, Self-direction and         Andragogy. The Encyclopedia of Informal Education, 16. Retreived from

            http://infed.org/mobi/malcolm-knowles-informal-adult-education-self-direction-