Running
Head: HISTORY OF ADULT EDUCATION 1
History of Adult
Education: The 1970’s
Robert Hill
Ball State University
History of Adult/Community Education: The 1970s
Introduction
If
one were to look at the beginning of the decade of the 1970’s, they would see a
continuum of the 1960’s. However, little
by little the decade began to have a distinct break from the 1960’s. Protest movements continued as the nation,
and world, continued to adapt to changing societal activities (Hall, 2008, p.
656). From a global standpoint, the
Vietnam War dragged on, Civil Rights activists pushed forward, education was in
flux, working conditions were examined and debated, and the role of government
was contemplated (ABH, 2014, p.3).
Unknown
to the masses, trends in technology that would change society were finding
root. The computer was still in its
infancy and had not yet become part of daily life. An awareness of pollution and unfulfilled
promises in equity from a cultural viewpoint were being challenged (ABH, 2014,
p.6). Watergate made the American people
question how much they could trust their leaders (ABH, 2014, p. 4). And, an economic recession in the United
States galvanized the public to debate how to create jobs. Lurking below the surface were relationships,
one that were often volatile, between the U.S.S.R and the United States.
In
education, desegregation was advanced through busing in Swann v.
Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education while those in opposition made it difficult
for implementation (Hall, 2008, p. 658).
Most schools were highly segregated and tumultuous battles ensued.
The
landscape of the private sector and workers rights was being redefined (Roos
& Reskin, 1992, p. 69). Female
workers were demanding equity in the workforce and worker unions fought on
behalf of their constituents (Roos & Reskin, 1992, p. 71). Struggles continued in the arena of
reproductive rights and legislation was confrontational while both sides
adamantly argued the verdict of Rowe v. Wade (ABH, 2014, p. 3).
From
a perspective of leisure and entertainment, society saw changes in technology
and a bustling theme parked era began its inception. Disney World opened, Star Wars took hold of
the imagination, and the Rubric’s Cubes puzzled people for a solution to the
game.
The
decade saw peace opportunities in the Middle East, communication with China,
Communist expansion in the Far East after the United States pulled troops in
Vietnam, a president scorned, a new Progressive president in Jimmy Carter and
the beginning of globalization (ABH, 2014, p. 6). There were gas shortages, talks with OPEC,
energy crises that included nuclear problems at Three Mile Island and space
exploration (ABH, 2014, p. 6).
The
Iran hostage crises grasped America’s heart and interest. The era had seen the Vietnam War viewed on
television, Nixon traveling to China, Stagflation, a bi-centennial birthday for
the country and closed the decade as Carter lost his re-election bid to Ronald
Reagan. Much like the change from the
1960’s to the 1970’s, the change from the 1970’s to the 1980’s did not have a
clear and concise split but a gradual change.
One
cannot look at the social background of the era without looking at the events
that shaped society. There are
relationships between events and society.
If one were to look at the economy of the 1970’s, there would be a
relationship between cultures, races, gender, standard of living, health,
opportunity and a multitude of other factors.
These relationships and reactions are embedded in
society. One need only look at the educational events
of the 1970’s to see a link to societal movements. Without desegregation, we would not be able
to look at education the same. And,
without the 1970’s, we would not be able to comprehend the pathway that events
lead us to.
Highlights
If there is a relationship between events and society, then there must be a relationship between society and adult education. As a reaction to society, adult education in the 1970’s was defined by several legislative acts; The 1970 Amendment to the Adult Education Act, and The Lifelong Learning Amendment (1976) (Rose, 1991, p. 19). The 1970 Amendment to the Adult Education Act was enacted to “provide skills necessary to gain the training needed to become more employable, productive, and responsible citizens” (Rose, 1991, p.19). Specifically, in 1972, the Act helped Native Americans, develop relationships with limited English skilled persons, and freed up money for community organizing (Rose, 1991, p.19). The Lifelong Learning Amendment “assisted federal and state agencies in their planning activities concerning lifelong learning as well as to review and research lifelong learning in terms of its participants, providers, means of financing unmet needs, and planning and coordination (Jonsen, 1978, p. 4).
The
definition of adult education from United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was defined in 1976. In abbreviated form to read:
“The entire body of organized educational
processes, whatever the content, level and
method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges, and
universities as well as in apprenticeship, whereby
persons regarded as adult by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge,
improve their technical or professional qualifications
or turn them in a new direction and bring about changes in their attitudes or behavior in the twofold
perspective of full personal development and participation
in balanced and independent social, economic, and cultural development; adult education, however,
must not be considered as an entity in itself,
it is a sub-division, and an integral part of a global scheme for lifelong education and learning” (Rubenson,
2010, p. 4).
This concept makes clear three critical ideas:
1.
“It is lifelong and therefore concerns everything from cradle to grave;
2. It is life-wide recognizing that learning
occurs in many different settings;
3. It focuses on learning rather than limit
itself to education”. (Rubenson, 2010, p. 4)
It
would appear that although there was a strong commitment to traditional adult
education and vocational programs in the 1970’s that there was a shift in
defining what adult education was. The
Carl Perkins Acts of the 1970s helped out in vocational training for persons
that needed specific skills in trade related fields but with the changing
definition set forth by UNESCO, a trend was moving toward a broader scope. The
“development of compensatory educational opportunities involved second-chance
and second-way adult education with an emphasis upon outreach work to the
nonparticipants in adult education, which was associated with development of
nonformal and informal community based forms of adult learning (Hake, 2010, p.
17).
Other
trends that affected adult education were that the country was in a “conversion from a
primarily manufacturing based economy to one that is information based” (Burns,
2011, p. 1). Since it has been
established that adult education reacts to society, there was likely a move to
educate in a manner that addressed the changing economy.
Influential
Factors
The main
adult/community leaders of the 1970’s included Knowles (Smith, 2002, p. 16) for
his works in community learning and development as well as lifelong learning
concepts. Allen Tough was a recognizable
leader in adult education with a focus on self guided learning (IACE, 2006, p.
1). Cyrile Houle was also a leading
adult educator in self-directed learning and author of the Inquiring Mind
(Brockett & Donaghy, 2005, p. 1).
McClusky was recognized in the 1970’s for his roles in adult education
leadership (IACE, 2006, p. 1). Paulo
Freier, and his Pedagogy of the Oppressed certainly qualifies him as a leader
in adult education and his belief in education for liberation (Freier, 1970, p.
43).
Ironically,
the work of one generation is not immediately known until the test of time has
stood up. These contributors have
achieved a status of leaders in their fields and many of their ideas and
concepts have become common practice in society and adult education.
There are
many lessons we can learn from the 1970’s and much we can be grateful for that
came out of the era. Conversely, there
is still work. When one looks at the
opportunities for adults in the 1970’s and compares it to what is available
today, there is a clear distinction. In
the 1970’s computers and distance learning were concepts not yet known. Today, provided no economic barriers are in
place, many can advance their education from home.
Implications
The 1970’s
were a time where the economy suffered under inflation and manufacturing began
to decline. In reaction, adult education
changed from a more vocational standpoint.
Information based economies were on the rise while manufacturing began
its slip. Ironically, monies from the
Carl Perkins Act still fed into a system that was on the downslide and adult
education has not been able to replace manufacturing since that era. Only policy can change that tide. Adult education, however, could have served
in another capacity. As many of the
leaders of adult education were raising awareness on how to educate and train
communities, they themselves did not see the changing economy. We can learn to be more cognizant of where
industry is moving and adapt at a faster pace in adult education. That is certainly something that adult
educators must think of as they try their best to follow where the job market
is heading.
We can also
learn the lessons of those that struggled through this time period. We know from history that we were a changing
society in the 1970’s. Those that tried
to hold onto old ideals met and clashed with those that saw a different
possibility in society and adult education.
When we look back at this era, it seems as though there was ultimately a
compromise between political views, directions, and policies.
Learning
from battles fought in the 1960’s, those in the 1970’s continued to push for
equality. Today, we can learn how hard
it was for these people to stand up to a system that was not always
equitable. Yet, they did stand up- even
when it was hard.
We can also
learn that education is a dynamic process; always changing, always
adapting. Most of the readings on the
subject define a relationship between society and adult education as a
reactionary measure. We can learn that
it might be of interest to see adult education more on the cusp of change as
opposed to the later. In economics, theories
abound about supply and demand relationships.
Demand often drives the supply.
But when there is no supply, or not enough supply, demand cannot fulfill
it obligation. In adult education we are
often seeing a problem with not enough supply in time. We can learn from the 1970’s that we must
change in accordance to demand at a more vigorous pace. If we look at society today in the United
States, we have an economy that is in many regards the opposite of the
1970’s. Today there is a great need for
skilled worker adult education. In the
1970’s we had an abundance of skilled workers and poor job opportunities yet we
still were training as if there were jobs in those fields. Somewhere between the 1970’s and today we
moved away from those training opportunities for adults when skilled jobs are
becoming needed again. The reaction time
is too slow. We learned that from the
1970’s and yet we still are not in a position to mobilize and get adults the
proper training in these fields. We
could learn a lot from history, but we are not at that point.
From a
cultural standpoint, the 1970’s offered us a glimpse of what can happen when
communities organize, educate, and dictate policy. If it were not for grass roots movements in
the era, we would not have the understanding of how to organize for local
needs.
Looking
back at the 1970’s shows a period of transition, change, hope and despair. Even though progress was slow, it nonetheless
was progress. We are now in a better
place as a society based on what happened in the 1970’s. Much of that can be attributed to the role
that adult education held in the transformation of the decade.
Table 1. Summary of History of Adult/Community Education Areas
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Areas:
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Summary
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Social Background
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Highlights
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Influential Factors
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Implications
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References
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Timeline-1970’s (2014). The 1970’s-The
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Brockett, R. & Donaghy, R.
(2005) Beyond the Inquiring Mind: Cyril Houle’s Connection to Self-Directed Learning. The University of
Tennessee, Knoxville, USA. 1.
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1. Retrieved from http://www.halloffame.outreach.ou.edu/2006/tough.html
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